How Does Hosseini Tell the Story in Chapter 2 Essay Example for Free

How Does Hosseini Tell the Story in Chapter 2 Essay During this early stage of the novel, narrative is fundamental in forming the basis and definition of Amir, the protagonist and teller of the story. As well as this, several expectations for the novel are also established, particularly in terms of characterization and plot. Whilst the book as a whole can be described as a psychological exploration into the complexities of guilt and jealousy, this chapter differs in the sense that the narration deliberately refrains from discussing any thoughts or emotions of Amir. Founded on factual knowledge such as dates, times, births, deaths, and directly quoted dialogue, the formal tone may reflect the writer’s attitude to the material being discussed; perhaps he is ashamed and wants, during this chapter, to distance himself from emotional implications and accountability? Instead, we are introduced to the voices of other characters, such as Baba, Ali and Sanaubar. This begins to embed the idea that the plot will revolve around a delicate web of interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, Hosseinis first-person narrator makes the larger story of Afghanistans troubles seem very personal, as Amirs tale of personal abuse, betrayal, and redemption, mirrors the tale of Afghanistan itself. Hosseini uses contrast to illustrate the inverse lives of Amir and Hassan. Endless description of infinite luxury, marble surfaces, the warmth of fire, and curved walls steering through one room after another, is followed by a single sentence, almost as an afterthought, mentioning Hassan and Ali’s humble mud hut at the bottom of the garden. The choice of sentence structure is reflective of their positions in society; their respective lifestyles are the culmination of ethnic tensions and intolerances. However, a degree of similarity remains, a similarity that is irrelevant of society. Both Hassan and Amir have lost their mothers, and as a consequence, only have their fathers and each other. They are closer than regular friends, or more like brothers. Their relationship plays a central role in the book, and it figures in another theme that is introduced in this chapter: standing up for what is right. But despite this undeniable connection, Amir cannot call Hassan a friend, in the same way that Baba never refers to Ali as a friend either. The looming division of religious beliefs is further intensified by the blasphemous language used by the soldiers in reference to Hassan’s mother, which gives an impression of the control and sadistic ways associated with the treatment of Hazaras by the Pashtuns. The significance of setting becomes increasingly apparent as the book goes on, and in this chapter we are introduced to the pastoral environment that sets the scene for the childhood that Amir and Hassan shared. Hosseini crafts a typical landscape in descriptive detail of the Afghanistan that once was, of sunlight, trees, fruit, and autumn colours. This imagery is recurrent in passages of retrospective throughout the novel, and is part of a structural plan to effectively shock the reader in later chapters when Amir returns to Afghanistan.

Islamic Extremists Essay Example for Free

Islamic Extremists Essay Nearly everyone has heard about Islam and the Arab world. In addition, many countries have already faced issues with the Muslim believers. Islam has caused problems, terrorist attacks, anti-democracy all over the world. They were also very successful in sending a message of who they truly are. People who are literally obedient to the Islamic faith are called Islamic Extremists. People, who are of the Islamic faith however desire to survive in peace without tribulations are not considered obedient or dutiful to the Islamic faith, these people are called moderate Muslims. Therefore, the Islamic religious extremists are the major group in Islam who follow the Qur’an word for word and create extreme violence that moderate Muslims do not. Islamic extremism started in Egypt in the late 1920s. During the inter-war years, the country was occupied by the British military. The Nationalist Wafd movement, led by Saad Zaghloul, opposed the presence of the British, as would anyone whose country is being occupied by a foreign military power. (A brief history of Islamic extremism) In 1928, Hassan al-Banna established the term â€Å"The Muslim Brotherhood† which was the first Islamist movement. The British government supported the nascent movement in an attempt to counterbalance the Nationalists. In modern Egyptian politics, the Muslim Brotherhood is the largest opposition party to Hosni Mubaraks National Democratic Party. Mubarak has been in power since the assassination of Anwar Sadat in 1981. The Muslim Brotherhood has always been illegal, and, over the years, thousands of its members have been imprisoned by the Egyptian government. (A brief history of Islamic extremism) The ideology of the early Brotherhood is very similar to that of Islamist groups today they denounced the Egyptian government as secular and regarded Egyptian society in terms of â€Å"jahaliya† or a barbaric, pre-Islamic society not based on Islamic sharia law. Sayyed Qutb, an Egyptian intellectual associated with the Muslim Brotherhood, wrote a book called Maalim fil Tariq ( Signposts on the Road), which proved to be highly influential on the thinking of modern Islamists. Qutb wrote the book in 1964 while in prison; 2 years later he was executed by hanging. (A brief history of Islamic extremism) In the late 1970s, the CIA financed and trained the mujahideen (Holy Warriors) in order to fight a proxy war with the Soviet army, which had invaded Afghanistan in 1979. Training, funding and the provision of arms to the mujahideen was carried out covertly via Pakistan and Saudi Arabia; one of the so-called Afghan Arabs who was trained by the U.S. was a young man called Osama bin Laden. (A brief history of Islamic extremism) In the recent years, Bangladesh was suspected of becoming a haven and breeding ground for Islamic terrorist groups with links to Al-Qaida. Domestic Islamic extremist groups are said to funnel Al-Qaida money, arms, and fighters through the country. In March 1999, IOJ chairman Amini told a public meeting: â€Å"We are for Osama [bin Ladin], we are for the Taliban, and we will be in government in 2000 through an Islamic revolution.† (Zuckerbrot-Finkelstein, B.) Bangladeshi support for Osama bin Ladin and Al-Qaida rose following the September 11 attacks and the subsequent American assault on the Taliban in Afghanistan. The U.S. conveyed its displeasure with Dhaka’s failure to quell anti-American, pro-Osama bin Ladin rallies in the wake of the American attack on Afghanistan. In November 2001, IOJ’s Amini said: â€Å"Osama bin Ladin is loved by the Bangladeshi people. Everyone respects him and considers him to be a leader of Muslims.† (Zuckerbrot-Finkelstein, B.) The political characteristics of Islam are derived from the Quran, the Sunna (the sayings and living habits of Muhammad), Muslim history, and sometimes elements of political movements outside Islam. Out of the Muslim Brotherhood, recently derived a group called The Muslim Salafeyeen. The Salafeyeen act ridiculously much worse than the Muslim Brotherhood. They have the same mentality as the Muslim Brotherhood; however, they go even beyond the expectations of the Quran’s teachings. For example the Muslim Brotherhood has the word politics in their dictionary, which means they can have political relationships with the westerners but that is to use their help for their own good, such as Saudi Arabia. They also base and enforce the law of the Qur’an on the people. On the flipside, the Salafeyeen do not have the word politics in their dictionary and the way they communicate is through severe violence even on their own people. For example their rule goes as follows: thieves must have their hands cut off, a curser’s tongue must be cut off, an adulterous must be killed with the edge of the sword, and so on with all the sinners. Their judgments are pretty extreme. They currently have a small group in Egypt. There is no research found about them yet, however information has been spread through word of mouth and people’s experiences in the recent days in Egypt. The Salafeyeen have been around and they are very few still. It is not long until the cancer is spread everywhere. Numerous terrorist tribes have eventually been spread all over the world. The Muslim Brotherhood has created a private group in each country who follow their plan. Therefore, every so often, the nation receives news about occurring devastations they have caused. Since the Muslim Brotherhood considers violence is the only method to spread or impose their religion on many countries, they had specifically chosen the United States of America to perform their violence attacks. The United States is currently considered the most powerful country in the world. If they had specifically chosen the United States, their goal is then revealed. The Muslim Brotherhood’s ambition is to attain the power of the United States and rule it. If they conquer this power, they most likely conquered the world. It is not difficult for anyone to figure this exposition. The terrorist attack that occurred in September eleventh of two thousand and one was mainly the first attack the caught the world’ s awareness. Prior to that, the nation was familiar about Islam and the Muslim Brotherhood; however they did not have enough knowledge in regards of whom they truly are. Throughout the years, the Muslim Brotherhood has determined that terrorism would be the only method used to communicate with the world. They have successfully sent out messages about their goals, which are to limit the world in education, political views, democratic views, etc. For example, the Islamic beliefs strain a woman of her basic rights. A woman is not allowed to go to school for education. According to the Shahih Bukhari 1.6.301, Volume 1, Book 6, Number 301: Narrated Abu Said Al-Khudri: Once Allahs Apostle went out to the Musalla (to offer the prayer) o Id-al-Adha or Al-Fitr prayer. Then he passed by the women and said, O women! Give alms, as I have seen that the majority of the dwellers of Hell-fire were you (women). They asked, Why is it so, O Allahs Apostle? He replied, I have not seen anyone more deficient in intell igence and religion than you. A cautious sensible man could be led astray by some of you. The women asked, O Allahs Apostle! What is deficient in our intelligence and religion? He said, Is not the evidence of two women equal to the witness of one man? They replied in the affirmative. He said, This is the deficiency in her intelligence. Isnt it true that a woman can neither pray nor fast during her menses? The women replied in the affirmative. He said, This is the deficiency in her religion. Their mentality is very limited in arguments as well. Their beliefs are against freedom of speech, religion, expression, even the Internet because it allows arguments, knowledge, and education and mostly everything that has to do with the human rights. All of their arguments must go back to the Shari’a (law) of Islam, which prevents all these rights. The Shari’a of Islam calls for men to beat their wives. According to 004.034 YUSUFALI: Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husbands) absence what Allah would have them guard. As to those women on whose part ye fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them (first), (Next), refuse to share their beds, (And last) beat them; but if they return to obedience, seek not against them Means (of annoyance). This type of mentality creates a violence animalistic society. People develop these violent skills through the enforcement of such laws which leads to terrorism. Imagine there is lack of education, freedom of arguments, speech, expression, religion, anti-democracy etc. how will anyone be able to learn, be fair, balanced in thoughts, unprejudiced or even survive in peace? It is certainly impractical. Therefore, to overcome the mentality of terrorism, the nation must understand what Islam and the Qur’an truly teaches Islamists. Some of the Qur’an’s teachings are mostly about the infidels (unbelievers) and how all of them will end up in Hell. According to the teachings of the Qur’an verses freely and blithely mentions: Do not take unbeli evers as friends; caution is necessary to befriend the unbelievers3:28. It is not honourable to take unbelievers as friends4:139. Do not take unbelievers as friends4:144. Believers are not to take the Jews and Christians as friends and protectors; if any believer (i.e. Muslim) turns to them then he also becomes a Jew or a Christian5:51. Real friends are God, His apostle (Muhammad) and the fellowship of pious and charitable believers5:55. Gods wrath and torments is for befriending the unbelievers5:80. Whoever seeks the friendship of evil people will be lead to the penalty of fire22:3. Cannot be on terms of secret intimacy or be friendly with the enemies of faith 60:1. This is the very own words of Qur’an that Islamists follow. Some Islamists who live in the west will even criticize their folks for buying a tiny Christmas tree just for the little children or even for attending Christmas parties. They will even go a step further in declaring that the westerners must learn from them (the Muslim migrants) and not the other way around. At this time, since the Qur’an never called for peace, it is underst andable why those Islamists act the way they do. The supreme rage of the Islamists is reserved for the way the western women dress, work and lives. Many Muslim women are deviously forced to wear hijab just to demonstrate to the infidel women the superior chastity of Muslim women. Ten years ago, it was rare to find a hijabi woman in any streets of Europe or the U.S. The situation is quite different now. Any rail-station, shopping center, eating stall, college, university, etc., will regularly notice a hijabi woman standing nearby. Many Islamists openly declare that all Muslim women must cover themselves in (ugly) hijab and cloak no matter what others may think of them. This is because these Muslim women will become the shining examples or beacon of femininity, chastity, and Islamic beauty to the infidel women and they (the infidel women) will eventually follow the Muslim women and happily wear the Muslim garb. These Islamists are absolutely certain that these infidel women will one day, surely be covered by Islamic hijab. Why? Because, Allah has ordained it-one day the entire world will become an Ummah (Islamic community) of some sort. They have no doubt on this. At this point, it is understandable why Islamic extremists commit their terrorism attacks. Their goal is to spread and enforce Islam in the whole world. Research has proved through the very own words of Qur’an and Hadith, action has proved it through terrorism attacks of the infidels (unbelievers), and their day-to-day routine dressing up in the Muslim garb. Many will argue it is not a problem if their religion inquires their women to dress and look that way. They are partially right, only if their purpose is to dress that way and nothing more. However based on research, even modern Islamists are called Islamists because they believe in Islamic Shari’a and law. They have an idea of what Islam is about and if they still call themselves Muslims, they are considered under the same category of religion. They have partially the same thoughts; they may not be interested in murdering, however they will never take a westerner as a friend, unless the westerner becomes a Muslim. This type of thinking is not in any way beneficial for a modern society. In a modern society, it encourages one to look, act, and think in a certain way. This way is not to enforce negative thoughts, beliefs on anyone. It is to encourage education, positive thoughts, and the acting of professionalism with one another. The best method in reaching a solution for the world is to understand that Islam is now spread in many places. Islam has become a whole mentality that people follow not fairly a religion. Islam currently starts in early stages of humans’ lives. A child is raised up receiving hate and all types of negative thoughts, which later develops in his/her core. Therefore, terrorism is never ending; in fact it improves by the days. At this time, there is no way around to end terrorism, but there are ways to make it less occurring in the world. Educating people, and youth on how terrorism started, and how the world perceives it as a negative act will help them understand the concept of terrorism. Also through education, people will have the need to protect their country and defend it. No one is willing to live in a country that is controlled by terrorists. Neither will anyone be willing to limit their thoughts, expression, education, freedom of worship, or personal decisions. In conclusion, Islamic extremists have attempted to impose their religious beliefs on the world. This happens through their violent attacks almost in every western country. The only method to stop this violence is to allow people to understand the true meaning of Islam. This is to educate people about Islam and Muslim extremists in the early stages of life. It is also essential to help the nation learn how the modern Muslims differ from those extremists. Through education, a solution can come into view on how we can end these bloody violent tribes. Even if it takes time, months and years, it can still take a major affect on the long run. References Bas, N. J. (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. Oxford: Oxford University Press, USA. BukhaÌ„riÌ„, M. i. (1981). Shahih Bukhari. Jakarta: Penerbit Widjaya. Darwish, N. (2006). Now they call me infidel: why I renounced jihad for America, Israel, and the War on Terror. New York, N.Y.: Sentinel. Jonas, G. (2007). Reflections on Islam: ideas, opinions, arguments. Toronto: Key Porter Books. Katel, P. (2010). Homegrown jihadists: can Muslim terrorists in the U.S. mount serious attacks?. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly. The Big Think Tank: A brief history of Islamic extremism. (2006, April 25). The Big Think Tank. Retrieved April 6, 2011, from http://thebigthinktank.blogspot.com/2006/04/brief-history-of-islamic-extremism.html Quran Shariff. (1978). S.l.: [s.n.]. Yuan, M. (2005). Women in Islam. Detroit: Greenhaven Press/Thomson-Gale. YouTube 2 year old Muslim Girl answers Questions on Islam. (n.d.). YouTube Broadcast Yourself. Retrieved April 20, 2011, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Tfh2PnvTnYfeature=related Zuckerbrot-Finkelstein, B. (2007, January 10). Islamic Extremism and Terrorism in Bangladesh-American Jewish Committee. Home-American Jewish Committee. Retrieved April 7, 2011, from http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?c=ijITI2PHKoGb=3133321ct=

Comparative Analysis on Kikuyu

Comparative Analysis on Kikuyu Comparative Analysis on Kikuyu within the SPE and Post-SPE Framework Term Paper for Foundations of Phonology Course Introduction This paper aims at observing the data set of Kikuyu language. Two frameworks are compared, i.e. the Sound Pattern of English (henceforth; SPE), and Post SPE (Autosegmental Phonology). Within the discussion, approaches form other theories will also be highlighted; however, the main point addressed in this paper is to evaluate the data set of Kikuyu on the basis of phonological theories within the two frameworks involved. Based on SPE theory, the lexical entries should consist of sufficient information for the phonological rules in order to identify its phonetic forms for each context. In other words, each lexical entry is entered as a set of phonological distinctive features. Furthermore, the underlying representation (UR) is considered as an abstract representation in comparison to a surface representation (SR). Along the paper, we will discuss both frameworks together with feature notations and then we will analyze the data set segmentally to obtain the rules governing the language of Kikuyu. In the next section, we will attempt to analyze the variability of the coordinated articulary apparatus with the spirit of the Post-SPE framework driven by a number of questions in the optimization of the data set analysis of with respect to the framework inquestion. During the analysis, we will not consider some basic requirements such as No Crossing Constraint and Linking Constraint in order to be consistent with the well-formedness condition of Post-SPE framework. Furthermore, we will also approach the so-called geometry of phonetic representations accompanied by sufficient examples to figure out any possible solution. One of the central issues addressed within this paper is the analysis on the shifting of nasal + consonant with respect to the given data set. We will try to compare two theories in question and observe how those theories could account for the changes in the data set. At a later stage, we will see which theory casts better analysis of the given data than the other does. Some literatures will be considered especially those from the textbook of Phonological Theory: The Essential Readings by Goldsmith, J. such as The Sound Pattern of English by Chomsky, N. and Halle, M., among others, as well as relevant sources which might give us more information about the language of Kikuyu. Now, let us go through the analysis from the first framework, i.e. the SPE framework. The SPE Framework The SPE framework is believed to be the basis of Generative Phonology since theories within this framework were influenced by the views from generative linguistics. Chomsky and Halle (in Goldsmith, 1999 : 17-19) states that a speakers knowledge of his language consists of knowing the lexical items of the language and each lexical entry must contain specified features, which determine the phonetic form of the item in all contexts, i.e. the items phonological features. Furthermore, such phonological features are classificatory devices, they are binary, as are all other classificatory features in the lexicon, for the natural way of indicating whether or not an item belongs to a particular category is by means of binary features. There will be two levels of representations that will be discussed in the SPE framework; underlying representation (i.e. lexical or morphophonemic sequence) and the surface form (i.e. phonetic output form). Given the authors aim at maximizing the simplicity of the grammar, it follows that underlying representations should be as abstract as possible and avoid redundant, or non-distinctive, features. Minimized underlying representations are indeed a requirement to ensure the generality of the overall linguistic system. Within this framework, we will analyze the data set on the language of Kikuyu in the spirit of morphological analysis, overview on any possible alternation within the dataset, as well as identifying the underlying representation (UR) from the given data set. Following this analysis, we will try to observe possible rules with feature notation of the given data in order to get a generalized rule ordering within the data set. For this analysis, we also refer to the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) chart, especially for the consonants chart and their features. Let us try to analyze the data set from the morphological analysis with the given data set below. The data set of Kikuyu is given below in table 1: Imperative---1 sg.Imperfect--English Meaning ßura------mbureet?--------'lop off' ßaara-----mbaareet?-------'look at' t?ma------nd?meet?--------'cut' toma------ndomeet?--------'send' reha------ndeheet?--------'pay' ru?a------ndu?eet?--------'cook' cina------ineet?--------'burn' koma------?gomeet?--------'sleep' kera------?gereet?--------'cross' ?ora------?goreet?--------'buy' ?aja------?gajeet?--------'divide' From table 1, we can see that there are two forms to observe, the one being Imperative and the other being the 1-sg-Imperfect from data set of Kikuyu language, which is followed by its meaning in English. The table shows that for each given word, several letters remain unchanged, which is typed in Bold inside the word. Most of them seem to have a Vowel and Consonant order (VC) and a long vowel one (i.e. VVC) such as in ßaara. Furthermore, we can also see in the Imperative column in which all words are always ended with a, marked after a slash sign (-). Subsequently, the words in the first singular Imperfect column are always ended with an eet?, which is also separated by a slash (-). A complete data set analysis is given in table 2 below. Table 2 Imperative-------------1 sg. Imperfect------------English Translation ßur - a--------------------mbur - eet?----------------------'lop off' ßaar- a--------------------mbaar- eet?----------------------'look at' t?m - a--------------------nd?m - eet?----------------------'cut' tom - a--------------------ndom - eet?----------------------'send' reh - a--------------------ndeh - eet?----------------------'pay' ru? - a--------------------ndu? - eet?----------------------'cook' cin - a--------------------in - eet?----------------------'burn' kom - a--------------------?gom - eet?----------------------'sleep' ker - a--------------------?ger - eet?----------------------'cross' ?or - a--------------------?gor - eet?----------------------'buy' ?aj - a--------------------?gaj - eet?----------------------'divide' From table 2, we can see that the unchanged letters, which are Bold typed above, are the stems or could be part of the stems of the word in underlying representation. Furthermore, we can also see suffixes, which indicate the Imperativeness or the given words that are signaled as the final letter a at the final position of the word. From the regularity of the final letters eet?, we can say that the given words must be classified as suffixes indicating the 1 sg. Imperfect form of Kikuyu language. We will discuss the underlying forms of the morphemes regularity in a separate discussion in a later part. Now let us see the structure of the nasal sound which occurs before the stems. It is conceivable that an alternation is defined as a morpheme, which has two different sound shapes, which can be analyzed by a phonological process. From the data set of Kikuyu, the some alternations can be observed as indicated in the following table (see table 3). The alternations can be identified easily in that ß becomes b; t /r becomes d; c becomes ?; k / ? becomes g. Those alternations can be viewed as the alternations in the language of Kikuyu whose phonological process will be explored in rules. Table 3 Imperative------------1 sg. Imperfect In a.b.ß-------------------------mb In c.d.t-------------------------nd In e.f.r-------------------------nd In g.c--------------------------- In h. i. k-----------------------?g In j. k. ?-----------------------?g Furthermore, we can also see that a nasal consonant is inserted before the changed consonant, e.g. m; n; ? and ?, which suggests that the morphological process goes along with the phonological process. Such insertion shows us important points for the data set in the language of Kikuyu. We will discuss such phenomenon in greater concern in later part. However, there is one thing to say about this phenomenon in the insertion of nasal consonant in the 1 sg. Imperfect groups could be analyzed as certain prefixes embedded which might express the tense of a verb. Whenever the alternation is constructed in an opposite way, i.e. b becomes ß in data set, this lead to an ill formed construction. Such a case is also falsifiable from data h. and j. in which ?g would become k and ? respectively following the case. Therefore, we will consider the sequence of alternation as from Imperative to 1 sg. Imperfect. The reanalysis of the stems of both forms is illustrated in table 4 below. Both prefixe s (nasals) and suffixes ( a and eet?) are discarded in table 4 so that we can get the stem of each verb. Table 4. Imperative--------------1 sg. Imperfect--------------English Meaning ßur---------------------bur-------------------------------'lop off' ßaar--------------------baar------------------------------'look at' t?m---------------------d?m-------------------------------'cut' tom---------------------dom-------------------------------'send' reh---------------------deh-------------------------------'pay' ruc---------------------du?-------------------------------'cook' cin---------------------?in-------------------------------'burn' kom---------------------gom-------------------------------'sleep' ker---------------------ger-------------------------------'cross' ?or---------------------gor-------------------------------'buy' ?aj---------------------gaj-------------------------------'divide' What we have observed so far indicates that phonological components are obtained by mapping from the underlying representation (UR) to the surface (phonetic) representation (SR). This mapping phenomenon can be observed by rewrite rules which will be discussed in a separate part. In other words, the data set of Kikuyu we have so far could be considered as the Surface Representation. In the following paragraphs, we attempt to identify the underlying representation of the Kikuyu language. As noted above, we have seen that the unchanged letters in table 2 could be analyzed as the stems or part of the stems of the words in the underlying representation. On the basis of minimization of the underlying representation we will attempt to rule in the consonant before the unchanged letters because it seems to be implausible to predict the consonants such as ß, t, r, c, k, ? by rule. Furthermore, we have also observed that the consonant ß can shift to b not the vice versa. Referring to the SPE theory, minimizing the underlying representation means that anything, which can be predicted by a rule, should be eliminated from the underlying representation. For instance, the shifting from ß to b can be viewed in table 4 which is exemplified by the shifting is from ßur to bur. Such process also applies to all other words in the data set. By definition, we could get something like /ßur/ to be the actual stem for underlying representation of the word, which means lop off in Kikuyu. The stems in underlying representation in the data set are presented in table 5 below and the Underlying Representations for the Imperative and 1 sg. Imperfect are represented in table 6. Table 5 UR Stem English Meaning /ßur/ 'lop off' /ßaar/ 'look at' /t?m/ 'cut' /tom/ 'send' /reh/ 'pay' /ru?/ 'cook' /cin/ 'burn' /kom/ 'sleep' /ker/ 'cross' /?or/ 'buy' /?aj/ 'divide' Table 6 Imperative UR 1 sg. Imperfect UR English Meaning /ßur - a/ /Nas - bur -eet 'lop off' /ßaar - a/ /Nas - baar-eet 'look at' /t?m - a/ /Nas - d?m -eet 'cut' /tom - a/ /Nas - dom -eet 'send' /reh - a/ /Nas - deh -eet 'pay' /ru? - a/ /Nas - du? -eet 'cook' /cin - a/ /Nas - ?in -eet 'burn' /kom - a/ /Nas - gom -eet 'sleep' /ker - a/ /Nas - ger -eet 'cross' /?or - a/ /Nas - gor -eet 'buy' /?aj - a/ /Nas - gaj -eet 'divide' In the framework of SPE, we have been familiar with the terms such as abbreviatory conventions, conciseness, Minimize UR, Rule format and Evaluation measures, etc. They will be considered here under IPA consonant chart and feature table where relevant information is given in table 7 below: Table 7 (Imp = Imperative) (1sg = 1 sg. Imperfect) Group A (data a. b.) ß - bilabial fricative (Imp) b - bilabial plosive (1sg) m - bilabial nasal (1sg) Group B (data c. d. e. f.) t - alveolar plosive (Imp) r - alveolar fricative (Imp) d - alveolar plosive (1sg) n - alveolar nasal (1sg) Group C (data g.) c - palatal plosive (Imp) ? - palatal plosive (1sg) ? - palatal nasal (1sg) Group D (data h. i. j. k.) k - velar plosive (Imp) ? - velar fricative (Imp) g - velar plosive (1sg) ? - velar nasal (1sg) From the distribution in table 7, we can draw some important information in the surface level. In Imperative classification (Imp), we can observe that the fricatives are plosives whereas in (1sg) group, we only observe the plosives ones. This observation is helpful for arriving at the deduction that under certain environment, fricatives/plosives are interpreted as (à  ) plosives. Furthermore, within each group, we can identify that the same place of articulation is shared, i.e., bilabial / alveolar / palatal / velar. This observation will contribute to identify the relation between the changed consonants and the added nasal sound types. In the mean time, within each 1sg group, we can also observe that the nasal sound always precedes the plosive sound. This observation is useful for understanding whether the prefix [Nasal] functions are in a linear order. By applying the minimized major feature for these consonants, we can generate some crucial feature notations as noted below. 1. Fricatives [-son, +cont] 2. Plosives [-son, -cont] 3. Nasals [+son, -cont] Therefore, now we can observe the assimilation of the feature [cont] in the course of transferring from fricatives to plosives and probably the dissimilation of the feature [son] between nasals and plosives. In order to satisfy the conditions of Minimize UR and the Evaluation measure, we could observe each sound in detail and add the feature [voice] where we can see that all plosives and nasals are [+voiced] as illustrated in table 8 below. Table 8 Features - consonant Features-place of articulation Group A (data a. b.) ß - [-son] [+cont] [+voiced] (Imp) [+ant] [-cor] b - [-son] [-cont] [+voiced] (1sg) [+ant] [-cor] m - [+son] [-cont] [+voiced] (1sg) [+ant] [-cor] Group B (data c. d. e. f.) t - [-son] [-cont] [-voiced] (Imp) [+ant] [+cor] r - [+son] [+cont] [+voiced] (Imp) [+ant] [+cor] d - [-son] [-cont] [+voiced] (1sg) [+ant] [+cor] n - [+son] [-cont] [+voiced] (1sg) [+ant] [+cor] Group C (data g.) c - [-son] [-cont] [-voiced] (Imp) [-ant] [+cor] ? - [-son] [-cont] [+voiced] (1sg) [-ant] [+cor] ? - [+son] [-cont] [+voiced] (1sg) [-ant] [+cor] Group D (data h. i. j. k.) k - [-son] [-cont] [-voiced] (Imp) [-ant] [-cor] ? - [-son] [+cont] [+voiced] (Imp) [-ant] [-cor] g - [-son] [-cont] [+voiced] (1sg) [-ant] [-cor] ? - [+son] [-cont] [+voiced] (1sg) [-ant] [-cor] From the features distribution above, we can observe several important generalizations. First, as we can see in the left column, consonants could adjust themselves to the nasal during the shifting to plosive by preserving [-cont] and [+voiced]. Then, the consonant r in Group B is the only consonant in Imp which has feature [+son], therefore, we have to shift it to become [-son] as well in the course of shifting to plosive. However, this is definitely not a kind of adjustment to the nasal since it is conceivable that all nasals are found to be [+son]. Second, in the right column, we can observe that the insertions of prefixing nasals adjust themselves to the consonants and become bilabial / alveolar / palatal / velar nasal respectively in place of articulation. Furthermore, we attempt to figure out the adjustments above as assimilation, as well as the dis-adjustment of r as dissimilation. In sum, we can obtain two important rules in the language in question. Rule A: [-cont] [+cons] à   [+voice]/[+nas] ______ [-son] Such rule entails the adjustment of the consonants to the nasals. Under this rule, ß becomes b; t and r becomes d; c becomes ?; k and ? becomes g due to the prefixing nasal. Then, all fricatives become plosives as given the following rule. Rule B: [+nas] à   [aPlace]/______[aPlace] In rule B, the same place of articulation is construed by the notation [aPlace] represents here. This rule signals the adjustment of the nasals to the consonants. By using this rule, nasal will become m whenever aPlace is bilabial; n whenever aPlace is alveolar; ? whenever aPlace is palatal and ? whenever aPlace is velar. The origin nasal in prefixing cannot be observed from the given data set. For instance, if it is [+nas, +cor] then it should be a consonant n. Along the previous part, we have observed some ordering rules in the language of Kikuyu. Further in this part, we will try to figure out the ordering of the two rules we have mentioned in advance. Based on the SPE framework, we have seen that all morphological rules apply before all phonological rules. Although Kiparsky and many others believe the other way against this framework, we try to see whether this rule is indeed workable within the spirit of SPE framework. Here, the morphological rules are viewed as infix insertion, i.e. prefix /Nas/; suffix /-a/ and /eet?/ in the given data set which will apply in the first place and the phonological rules given in Rule A and Rule B above will apply in the second place. Now the question turns to which phonological rule applies in first order, being Rule A or Rule B. Suppose we take examples in data d and e from the given data set. First, let us look at data d. it seems that we will not find any difference in data d with respect to the ordering of two rules and hence the result looks like the same. Then, try to compare with data e. Let see what happens. Table 9 Data d = from [toma] to [ndomeet?] If Rule A precedes Rule B Morphological Rule /Nas/ + /tom/ + /eet?/ =UR Rule A /Nas/ + /dom/ + /eet?/ Rule B /n/ + /dom/ + /eet?/ =SR If Rule B precedes Rule A Morphological Rule /Nas/ + /tom/ + /eet?/ =UR Rule B /n/ + /tom/ + /eet?/ Rule A /n/ + /dom/ + /eet?/ =SR Data e. from [reha] to [ndeheet?] If Rule A precedes Rule B Morphological Rule /Nas/ + /reh/ + /eet?/ =UR Rule A /Nas/ + /deh/ + /eet?/ Rule B /n/ + /deh/ + /eet?/ =SR If Rule B precedes Rule A Morphological Rule /Nas/ + /reh/ + /eet?/ =UR Rule B /n/ + /reh/ + /eet?/ Rule A /n/ + /deh/ + /eet?/ =SR As we can see above, the comparison between data d and e indicates the same thing for ordering of two rules as well. This suggests that the ordering of rules do not have something to do with the result. It further suggests that the nasals and the derived consonants could have a relatively strong connection with each other, i.e. one co-exists with the other. Within the SPE framework, the data set has been analyzed in the form of features of lexical individual segments. We tried to apply the rules we have and they seems to work well. This gives further indication that the SPE framework can be considered as effective tool in explaining the phenomenon in data set of Kikuyu language. However, it seems that the relationship between the two rules is not transparent. The reason for this might be the difficulty in generating the only one rule instead of two explaining such phenomenon in the SPE framework. The Post-SPE Framework Autosegmental phonology was introduced by John Goldsmith (1976) and re presented a great step forward in linguistic research. In the classical generative theory developed by Chomsky and Halle, phonological components were linear sequences of segments which themselves consisted of feature bundles. One of the downfalls of the SPE framework resided in the assumption that every segment had to correspond to exactly one feature specification and vice-versa (every feature specification had to correspond to exactly one segment). Consequently, many phonological phenomena (related to stress, lengthening, rhythm and intonation for instance) were left unexplained. SPE simply had no way of providing a proper account of prosodic phenomena. As stated by Goldsmith himself ((1999: p.137), Autosegmental phonology constitutes a particular claim about the geometry of phonetic and phonological representations. it suggests that the phonetic representation is composed of a set of several simultaneous sequences of these segments, with certain elementary constraints on how the various levels of sequences can be interrelated or associated. The main innovation brought about by Post-SPE framework is the fact that supra segmental features, such as stress or tone, are no longer confined to exactly one segment but can be shared by two or more segments and vice-versa. Some features, while remaining associated with a segment, are now handled separately. Many phonological phenomena can then be analyzed in terms of a restructuring or reorganization of the autosegments in a representation. Different from the first section, here we will analyze the data set of Kikuyu within the Post-SPE framework, or also known as the Autosegmental Phonology but within this paper we rather use the term Post SPE just for the sake of easiness in comparison. In this section, we will also consider the use of the IPA chart and feature notations for the discussion in the Post-SPE framework. Also in this part we might still view some rules from SPE framework and will be reviewed in the spirit of Post-SPE framework. Phenomenon such as assimilation and dissimilation will be approached to address the problems we found in the data set of Kikuyu Language. Of course, other theories within the Post-SPE will also be introduced. Let us start our discussion with the identification of features and spreading in this framework. In this framework, features will be viewed as independent features of their segments in order for them to be represented as auto-segments. We can observe in the data set of Kikuyu language that a phonological process can influence more than one consonant at a time. This might lead us to review the data we had in table 3 where ß mb; t nd; r nd; c ; k ?g; ? ?g, with the given two rules. We have mentioned earlier about assimilation in SPE, i.e. an alternation which copies a feature specification from the closest segment. Take Group A and Rule B as an example: [+nas]à   [bila Place] / ______ [bila Place] Nà   m / ______ ß / b In the Post-SPE framework, assimilation is identified as the spreading of features to the neighbouring X-slots. This means that an X-slot is associated with the two X-slots, resulting assimilation as illustrated below: NX NX mX |à  Ã‚ ¥|à  Ã‚ ¥| [+ant][+ant] [+ant] [-cor] [-cor] [-cor] For the sake of easiness, some tiers are excluded. Here, X represents the changed consonant in Kikuyu. The nasal is considered another X slot, which is marked as N. After spreading, we see that the two X-slots share the feature of [+ant] and [-cor]. The feature from the neighboring X-slot could be deleted after the course of spreading. The replacement of Rule A in the Post SPE framework is a bit more complicated than Rule B since deletion is involved. As for instance, consider Group A we have noted above, within the SPE framework, we will get the shifting below. [+cons]à   [-cont] [+voice] [-son] / [+nas]______ ßà   b / N______ Then, let us apply this within the Post SPE framework to analyze this phenomenon where we have two X-slots represent Nasal and Consonant respectively during the course of alternation. An example of shifting from Nß to Nb is given below. X X X X | | à   | / [+son] [-son] [+son] [-son] [-cont] [+cont] [-cont] [-cont] [+voiced]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  [+voiced]  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  [+voiced]  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   [+voiced] For the sake of easiness, some tiers are reduced. We can see in the shifting process that [-son, +voiced] features are preserved during the shifting and [+cont] feature becomes [-cont]. In the SPE framework, it is conceivable that morphological rules apply before phonological rules, so we have a Nasal slot before Consonant slot in 1 sg. Imperfect i

Essay on Whartons Ethan Frome: Development of the Novel and Characters

The Development of   the Novel and Characters   In the novel Ethan Frome, by Edith Wharton, the character of Ethan Frome plays an important role in the development of the rest of the book. He has several character traits which distinguish him from the other main characters. Also, there are many factors which play against him throughout the novel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The physical appearance of Ethan Frome played a significant part in creating his character. He was a tall, thin man. He had dark colored hair and dark eyes. He seemed a little rough around the edges and the scar on the side of his face was another of his distinguishing marks. At the very beginning of the book, he is 52 years old, but is described as looking much older than that. Throughout the main part of the book, which is a flashback, Frome is in his 20's. After the sledding accident with Mattie, he is left with bad vision in his right eye, which causes him trouble sometimes. Ethan Frome stutters and speaks in abbreviated forms sometimes. Most of the people in the town and in the novel speak in abbreviated forms. The actual town itself and the surroundings of Frome are harsh and cold, especially in winter when the book takes place. These harsh surroundings make Frome who he is and give him a "careless powerful look".   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Speech also renders some importance in this novel. A few examples of abbreviated words are: "Wurst kind", and "More'n enough", and lastly "Oh, I ain't afr'd". All of these slang words and also many more were used throughout the novel. This misuse of words shows that Frome and the other characters were not well educated. The work was more important than learning and also, Ethan Frome's p... ...im. As they stood in each others arms, they experienced a sense of ease that neither of them had ever felt before. They had led hard lives and this was the end. Theirs dreams were crushed, yet these moments were very important in the course of their lives. This was also the point in which they decided that if they couldn't live with each other, they wouldn't live at all. They decided to commit suicide mutually, and failed. It may have been better off if they had succeeded, because they led miserable lives after the accident.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The novel Ethan Frome, by Edith Wharton, created a vivid character image for the actual character of Ethan Frome. His role was depicted by physical appearance, speech, behavior and motivation, response and change, worst life experience, and best life experience. All of these themes help develop the novel and other characters. Essay on Wharton's Ethan Frome: Development of the Novel and Characters The Development of   the Novel and Characters   In the novel Ethan Frome, by Edith Wharton, the character of Ethan Frome plays an important role in the development of the rest of the book. He has several character traits which distinguish him from the other main characters. Also, there are many factors which play against him throughout the novel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The physical appearance of Ethan Frome played a significant part in creating his character. He was a tall, thin man. He had dark colored hair and dark eyes. He seemed a little rough around the edges and the scar on the side of his face was another of his distinguishing marks. At the very beginning of the book, he is 52 years old, but is described as looking much older than that. Throughout the main part of the book, which is a flashback, Frome is in his 20's. After the sledding accident with Mattie, he is left with bad vision in his right eye, which causes him trouble sometimes. Ethan Frome stutters and speaks in abbreviated forms sometimes. Most of the people in the town and in the novel speak in abbreviated forms. The actual town itself and the surroundings of Frome are harsh and cold, especially in winter when the book takes place. These harsh surroundings make Frome who he is and give him a "careless powerful look".   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Speech also renders some importance in this novel. A few examples of abbreviated words are: "Wurst kind", and "More'n enough", and lastly "Oh, I ain't afr'd". All of these slang words and also many more were used throughout the novel. This misuse of words shows that Frome and the other characters were not well educated. The work was more important than learning and also, Ethan Frome's p... ...im. As they stood in each others arms, they experienced a sense of ease that neither of them had ever felt before. They had led hard lives and this was the end. Theirs dreams were crushed, yet these moments were very important in the course of their lives. This was also the point in which they decided that if they couldn't live with each other, they wouldn't live at all. They decided to commit suicide mutually, and failed. It may have been better off if they had succeeded, because they led miserable lives after the accident.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The novel Ethan Frome, by Edith Wharton, created a vivid character image for the actual character of Ethan Frome. His role was depicted by physical appearance, speech, behavior and motivation, response and change, worst life experience, and best life experience. All of these themes help develop the novel and other characters.

A Hero of Our Time by Mikhail Lermontov Essay -- Hero of Our Time, Vla

In his novel A Hero of Our Time translated by Vladimir Nabokov, Mikhail Lermontov creates a character named, Pechorin based on his opinions to 19th century Russian society. Pechorin is cruel, selfish, and careless to the people but ironically, Pechorin’s refusal to marry either Princess Marry or Vera, reveals him to be as an honorable man. Although, Pechorin describes his life as full of boredom and his opinion to love is different, Lermontov again explains he should be represented as a respectful man. By Pechorin’s behavior and thoughts, Lermontov demonstrates an honorable man is not consistently sympathetic and understandable because truly, Pechorin’s behavior and thoughts are to depict how life may describe as meaningless and purposeless. Lermontov expresses Pechorin’s selfishness by the rejection to Princess Marry and Vera in which ironically, those also represent him as an honorable man and that he explains the meaningless life. Pechorin has an unusual mind and character that no other men will have during 19th century. The first impression of Pechorin drives people to think him as a disrespectful man because for the most of the time, his actions are blamable. For example, when Pechorin kills Grushnitsky in the duel and after, then he meets Princess Marry right away, he says â€Å"I cannot marry you. Even if you wished it now, you would soon regret it† (162). Lermontov fully proves the disrespectful behavior of him because he killed a man over a girl’s love and he right away rejects the girl’s love. However, Lermontov’s real view is Pechorin killed Grushnitsky because they both did not truly love Princess Marry; instead, Pechorin already knew it was a jealousy that was coming from each other in which it supports how honorable ma... ...ctfully to the people around him but still, he may represent as an honorable man because of his thoughts and behaviors to 19th century Russian society. First, the event of Princess Marry and Vera explains Pechorin is a respectful man because he rejects those two girls’ love for their own lives and by explaining the meaningless life to them. Second, Lermontov’s beliefs that a life is apathy by Pechorin’s behavior and thoughts lead Pechorin as an honorable man. Most of the people believe an honorable man is one who says a life is not boredom and acts carefully and responsibly to his or her people. However, Lermontov explains an honorable man’s character alters by a society situation such as Pechorin. An honorable man’s action and belief may alter and that people still have to respect them because an honorable man is made by the people and the society.

Free Trade V.S. Command Economy Essay -- Economics

Free Trade V.S. Command Economy =============================== Introduction: Politicians, countries and ideologies from all over the world have for years been torn between what they should follow and believe. Countries quarrel over which policies should be adopted and what, how, for whom have been the economist's fundamental question. Adam Smith preached for market economies often referring to "the invisible hand" Karl Marx preached for command economies often referring to "The proletariat will over run the capitalist class" These two men have substantially shaped the way countries have decided to run their economies. Not forgetting the names of a great deal of other Their works were published in volumes, therefore I will not attempt to integrate any of their work in this project, but instead I will refer to some of their ideologies. One would think that these two men were totally different from each other, but in actual fact they are very similar. They both wanted to change the way their societies ran things.  · Resource allocation  · Resource ownership  · Type of incentives  · Level of government decision making The 2 major economic systems are market and Marxist: The first is Capitalism: an economic system characterised by private ownership of the factors of production, market allocation of resources, use of economic incentives, decentralised decision making. E.g.(the US adopts an economic system very much similar to the one above but does have some forms of state intervention like the Defence) The second is planned socialism: an economic system characterised by state ownership of the factors of production, the use of moral, resource allocation and economic plan and central... ... thus queues for staple food were lengthening and demand was soaring. For most commodities supply had dropped because inter-trading with the USSR had also ceased. These ex-communist countries were each specialised in supply certain resources (i.e. iron, coalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) but after the break of control from Moscow this was no longer possible. The transition in 1991 was less difficult for Poland because they already used market forces in agriculture. The USSR succeeded in sending the first man in space during communist rule In Russia investment and business were failing to settle because of the old bureaucratic system still in place, as the example goes (Its hard to teach an old dog new tricks). Another example of failure was that of Military expenditure, production fell, as well as space research, the two earlier accounting for 20% of the GDP in the USSR.

Rick Hansen in Grania Litwin’s Perpetual Motion

Defeating fear in our minds is the biggest challenge. In Perpetual Motion, written by Crania Litton, Rick Hansen defeats the biggest challenge in both his body and his heart, and teaches people to find and achieve their life goals. His courage, perseverance and generosity mark him as one of the most venerable role model in human history. With a firm ambition and consistent strive, Hansen conquers a hardship which almost destructed his heart before. His courage and confidence brings positive influences to those who suffer from predicament and illuminates people to overcome difficulty bravely.When trapped in endless pain and despair, he did not give up himself; instead, he chose to â€Å"focus on something [he] could do, set goals. â€Å"(paragraph 1 7) Trampling down affliction by turning to improve himself is a great victory. This action inspires people to face challenge and surmount it by themselves. Hansen encourages people by both using his impressive experience and giving power ful words. He proves to the world that he is never defeated by physical disability: â€Å"He pushed his chair 40,000 kilometers around the globe, wrought 34 countries, up mountain ranges, through freezing blizzards and along the Great Wall. (paragraph 2) Also, he tells people to be brave in stepping towards their ambition and never think about failure because ‘the only thing that stops people reaching for their dream is fear of failure. â€Å"(paragraph 23) His success not only rehabilitates himself but also emanates hope to people who hesitate to take their first step towards their goal. Never stopping going forward, Hansen does not satisfy in making only himself successful. He aims to help more people who ever encounter same problems.Hansen founded Rick Hansen Man in Motion Foundation, whose â€Å"consciousness-raising efforts helped raise funding of $158 million. â€Å"(paragraph 9) His role model is as significant as the money he has granted to better â€Å"specialize d treatment centers, new imaging technology, exceptional neural and spinal surgeons. â€Å"(paragraph 8) Hansen persists to change the world with his endeavor and inspire people to live a better life. Even though in wheelchair, Rick Hansen still lives a much more fantastic life than most people. Never being defeated by fear and pursuing ambition no